Chromosomes are the building block of all life. A Chromosome basically carries all of the vital information needed for our bodies to be able to grow cells,reproduce and survive. Chromosomes that contains DNA, as well as some regulatory proteins. Chromosomes are normally found in the nuclei of cells. [1]

What Are Chromosomes?

There are 46 chromosomes in the human body or about 23 pairs of chromosome. In the case of other organisms such as a small Peas there are 12 chromosomes. Dogs have 78 chromosomes. This number is really not related to the complexity,size or intelligence of a particular species.[2]

Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males have one X and one The “Y” Chromosome. Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of DNA.

The sex chromosomes are the X chromosome and the The “Y” Chromosome Chromatin is the unit of measurement for chromosomes. chromatin count helps displays the structure of chromosomes but isn’t unique to any particular type of chromosome..

The vast majority of chromosomal abnormalities involve the sex chromosomes XX and XY. Much more so than other types of autosomal abnormalities. Entire commercial industries are based on genetics and evolution of these changes. Sex chromosome abnormalities are gender specific. XX chromosomes are markers for females and XY chromosomes are the markers for men. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division and differentiation.

It’s crucial that our reproductive ancestor cells (eggs and sperm haploids), contain the exact number of chromosomes and these chromosomes must also have the proper construction. [3] Haploid cells are created via meiosis which is the opposite of mitosis. Chromosomal disorders are currently not treatable using stem cells and require gene therapies.

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Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Y. Pirson, Recent advances in the clinical management of autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease, QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, Volume 89, Issue 11, November 1996, Pages 803–806, https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/89.11.803

• [2] ^ W. Reardon, C.F. O Mahoney, R. Trembath, H. Jan, P.D. Phelps, Enlarged vestibular aqueduct: a radiological marker of Pendred syndrome, and mutation of the PDS gene, QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, Volume 93, Issue 2, February 2000, Pages 99–104, https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/93.2.99

• [3] ^ W.D. FOULKES, A tale of four syndromes: familial adenomatous polyposis, Gardner syndrome, attenuated APC and Turcot syndrome, QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, Volume 88, Issue 12, December 1995, Pages 853–863, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a069018

UPDATED July 06, 2020 All cells have to eventually duplicate. in nature, there are 2 main methods of cell duplication. Mitosis and Meiosis.

The Process of Mitosis – VIDEO

Mitosis is the exact opposite of cell duplication through meiosis where the chromosome population is split in half. [1] This fundamental process of cell division allows for each new cell to retain their original chromosome numbers, allowing other cell types to increase or maintain its populations. Mitosis and the process known as cytokinesis define the “M” mitotic phase of the cell division cycle. In this process, the mother cell will form into two distinct daughter cells.[2]

When the cells duplicate through mitosis, two identical cells are formed in the gastrulation process.[3]There are five basic phases in the life-cycle of all cells.  The Phases are known as PMATI (pronounced PeeMahtEee). The 5 phases of mitosis are:

PROPHASE

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE

INTERPHASE

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Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Boettcher, Barbara, and Yves Barral. 2013. The cell biology of open and closed mitosis. Nucleus (Austin, Tex.), no. 3 (April 15). doi:10.4161/nucl.24676. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23644379

• [2] ^ Heijink, Anne Margriet, Małgorzata Krajewska, and Marcel A T M van Vugt. 2013. The DNA damage response during mitosis. Mutation research, no. 1-2 (July 21). doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2013.07.003. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23880065

• [3] ^ Kuffer, Christian, Anastasia Yurievna Kuznetsova, and Zuzana Storchová. 2013. Abnormal mitosis triggers p53-dependent cell cycle arrest in human tetraploid cells. Chromosoma, no. 4 (April 28). doi:10.1007/s00412-013-0414-0. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23624524

A Stem cell niche pertains to the particular tissue area where stem cells exist. The actual word ‘niche’ means the medium was “live” in vivo or in a lab or in-vitro microenvironment. [1] Recent journals and clinical studies on Mesenchymal cells from diverse systems have shown that stem cell function is controlled by extracellular cues from the niche and by intrinsic genetic programs within the cell polar body.[2]

Hepatic Stem Cell Niche – VIDEO

Other types of niches include bone marrow niches, intestine stem cell niche, brain cell niche or Haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) niches.[3]

GSC or Germline stem cells are a type of niche that can generates,sperms, haploid gametes or oocytes. Oocytes are primarily responsible for transmitting of a humans genetic information from one generation to the next generation.

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Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Li, Linheng, and Ting Xie. 2005. Stem cell niche: structure and function. Annual review of cell and developmental biology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16212509

• [2] ^ Ovadia, Jeremy, and Qing Nie. 2013. Stem cell niche structure as an inherent cause of undulating epithelial morphologies. Biophysical journal, no. 1 (January 8). doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2012.11.3807. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23332076

• [3] ^ Yang, Sheng-An, Wen-Der Wang, Ciao-Ting Chen, Chen-Yuan Tseng, Yi-Ning Chen, and Hwei-Jan Hsu. 2013. FOXO/Fringe is necessary for maintenance of the germline stem cell niche in response to insulin insufficiency. Developmental biology, no. 1 (July 27). doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.07.018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23895933

Long-term self-renewal in regen medicine refers to the capability stem cells have for self-replication through continuous division. The result of this natural regeneration cycle is common amongst certain types of non-specialized cells. The process of self-renewing usually occurs over a long period (that could even run for years), and the length and rate of self-renewal is determined on the specific stem cell variant.[1]

The introduction of self-renewing hepatoblast like cells or “HBCs” from human multipotent and pluripotent stem cells “PSCs” that has helped us provide a high quality and stable supply of mesenchymal hepatocyte-like cells for regenerative medical applications.[2]

Video about Long-Term  and Continuous Self-Renewal

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Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Deng, Y, X Zhang, X Zhao, Q Li, Z Ye, Z Li, Y Liu, et al. 2013. Long-term self-renewal of human pluripotent stem cells on peptide-decorated poly(OEGMA-co-HEMA) brushes under fully defined conditions. Acta biomaterialia, no. 11 (July 24). doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.07.017. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23891809

• [2] ^ Frelin, Catherine, Robert Herrington, Salima Janmohamed, Mary Barbara, Gary Tran, Christopher J Paige, Patricia Benveniste, et al. 2013. GATA-3 regulates the self-renewal of long-term hematopoietic stem cells. Nature immunology, no. 10 (August 25). doi:10.1038/ni.2692. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23974957

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a procedure in which the nucleus of an adult or somatic cell is inserted into an enucleated egg for the creation of an embryo. In-Vivo a nucleus, which contains a persons DNA, somatic cell is removed from its vessel and the rest of the cell cultures are discarded. Somatic cells are found in adult stem cells other than the egg or sperm such heart cells,skin cells, nerve cells or any other non-germ cell lines.[1]

When, the nucleus of an egg cell is removed our doctors can simultaneously take the nucleus then inserted into the enucleated egg cell. After the cell is inserted into the egg, the somatic cell nucleus is finally reprogrammed naturally by the host cell.The final egg, now contains the nucleus of a somatic stem cell. The cell is activated through stimulated with a bio-shock causing it to begin dividing. [2] After a few mitotic divisions in cell culture medium, this single cell forms a blastocyst which is an early stage embryo with only about 100 cells but with almost the identical DNA to the original donating organism.

SCNT is beneficial in regenerative therapies at the Regen center of Thailand and primarily used for therapeutic cloning applications and reproductive function for those dealing with infertility

Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Tachibana M., Sparman M., Sritanaudomchai H., Ma H., Clepper L., Woodward J., Li Y., Ramsey C., Kolotushkina O., Mitalipov S. Mitochondrial gene replacement in primate offspring and embryonic stem cells. Nature. 2009;461:367–372. doi: 10.1038/nature08368

• [2] ^ Jouneau A., Zhou Q., Camus A., Brochard V., Maulny L., Collignon J., Renard J.P. Developmental abnormalities of NT mouse embryos appear early after implantation. Development. 2006;133:1597–1607. doi: 10.1242/dev.02317

Oligopotent cell lines have the ability to transform into quite a limited number of several other types of cells, an example of which is a myeloid cells,B cells, T cells, plasma cells or the cells comprising the lymphoid system. An example of Oligopotent Cells are myeloid cell can differentiate into any of the blood stem cells found in the lymphatic system.

Lymphoid stem cell can become any of the blood cells found in the lymphatic system or vascular (lung stem cells for COPD or IPF), as these only have enough capacity to differentiate into smooth muscle or endothelial cells. [1] Oligopotent cells are known to be less potent compared to multipotent,pluripotent or totipotent cells but in the case of unipotent cells, they are found to be more potent. 

Video About Oligopotent Cell Potency

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Published Clinical Citations

• [1] ^ Majo, François, Ariane Rochat, Michael Nicolas, Georges Abou Jaoudé, and Yann Barrandon. 2008. Oligopotent stem cells are distributed throughout the mammalian ocular surface. Nature, no. 7219 (October 1). doi:10.1038/nature07406. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18830243